Test Performed | Tensile Bar - Tensile tests of hardened flat bar weld samples. |
Testing Facility | Stork Materials Testing & Inspection |
Address, City, State, Zip | 15062 Bolsa Chica, Huntington Beach, CA 92649 |
Testing Date | 1/3/2005 |
Actual Test Data | Sample 1: YS = 169 ksi, UTS = 188 ksi, elong. = 7%; Sample 2: YS = 169 ksi, UTS = 188 ksi, elong. = 7% |
Test Result | The Yield Strength (YS) was found to be 169 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) was found to be 188 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), and the total elongation at failure was found to be 7% for two duplicate tests. KVA welded, then hardened, samples did not fail in the weld and heat-affected zone, but the failure did occur in the base metal outside of the weld and heat-affected zone. |
Data Explanation | The KVA processed martensitic stainless steel weld strength is typically 8-10% greater than hardened base metal strength in autogenous (I.e. no filler added) fusion welds. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | The KVA processed martensitic stainless steel weld is 8%-10% stronger than hardened martensitic stainless steel and provides the end-user with an extra margin of safety - increasing strength and durability, or reduced weld size needed to carry the same load - reducing manufacturing time and costs. |
Test Performed | Tensile tests of as-welded flat bar weld samples. |
Testing Facility | Stork Materials Testing & Inspection |
Address, City, State, Zip | 15062 Bolsa Chica, Huntington Beach, CA 92649 |
Testing Date | 2/15/2005 |
Actual Test Data | Samples 1-4: UTS = 65.5 ksi, UTS = 74.5 ksi, UTS = 79.5 ksi, UTS = 76.5 ksi |
Test Result | The Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) was found to be between 65.5 and 79.5 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi) for four duplicate tests. The transverse KVA welded samples failed outside of the weld and heat-affected zone, in the base metal. |
Data Explanation | The KVA processed martensitic stainless steel weld strength is typically 150-200% greater than the annealed base metal strength in autogenous (I.e. no filler added) fusion welds. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | The KVA processed martensitic stainless steel weld is 150%-200% stronger than annealed martensitic stainless steel and provides the end-user with an extra margin of safety - increasing strength and durability, or reduced weld size needed to carry the same load - reducing manufacturing time and costs. |
Test Performed | Tensile tests of as-welded flat bar weld samples. |
Testing Facility | Stork Materials Testing & Inspection |
Address, City, State, Zip | 15062 Bolsa Chica, Huntington Beach, CA 92649 |
Testing Date | 2/15/2005 |
Actual Test Data | Samples 1-4: UTS = 65.5 ksi, UTS = 74.5 ksi, UTS = 79.5 ksi, UTS = 76.5 ksi |
Test Result | The Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) was found to be between 65.5 and 79.5 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi) for four duplicate tests. The transverse KVA welded samples failed outside of the weld and heat-affected zone, in the base metal. |
Data Explanation | The KVA processed martensitic stainless steel weld strength is typically 150-200% greater than the annealed base metal strength in autogenous (I.e. no filler added) fusion welds. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | The KVA processed martensitic stainless steel weld is 150%-200% stronger than annealed martensitic stainless steel and provides the end-user with an extra margin of safety - increasing strength and durability, or reduced weld size needed to carry the same load - reducing manufacturing time and costs. |
Test Performed | Tensile tests of as-delivered material. |
Testing Facility | AK Steel Research |
Address, City, State, Zip | 7005 Curtis Street, Middletown, OH 45043 |
Testing Date | 4/5/2006 |
Actual Test Data | Sample 1 (L-direction): YS = 51.6 ksi, UTS = 78.8 ksi, elong. = 29.2%; Sample 2 (T-direction): YS = 49.2 ksi, UTS = 79.4 ksi, elong. = 29.2% |
Test Result | For annealed, unwelded material, the Yield Strength (YS) was found to be 51.6 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) was found to be 78.8 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), and the total elongation at failure was found to be 29.2% for a sample oriented in the sheet rolling (L-direction). For a sample oriented transverse to the sheet rolling direction (T-direction) the Yield Strength (YS) was found to be 49.2 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) was found to be 79.4 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), and the total elongation at failure was found to be 29.2% . |
Data Explanation | Unprocessed martensitic stainless steel material as delivered from steel mills - annealed - shows relatively low strength, 30%-40% of the strength of hardened material, with excellent ductility and elongation of nearly 30%. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | The as-delivered, annealed martensitic stainless steel material, exhibits lower strength and enhanced ductility compared to conventional pre-hardened "high strength steels", provides the end-user with easy-to-form material - reducing manufacturing time and costs, while still allowing for high strength parts after heat-treatment. |
Test Performed | Tensile tests of as-delivered and hardened material. |
Testing Facility | AK Steel Research |
Address, City, State, Zip | 7005 Curtis Street, Middletown, OH 45043 |
Testing Date | 4/5/2006 |
Actual Test Data | Sample 1 (Hardened L-direction): UTS = 197 ksi, elong. = 8.9%; Sample 2 (Hardened T-direction): UTS = 197 ksi, elong. = 7.7%; Sample 3 (Annealed L-direction): UTS = 77 ksi, elong. = 30.3%; Sample 4 (Annealed T-direction): UTS = 77 ksi, elong. = 29.4% |
Test Result | For hardened, unwelded martensitic stainless steel, the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) was found to be 197 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), and the total elongation at failure was found to be 8.9% for a sample oriented in the sheet rolling (L-direction). For a sample oriented transverse to the sheet rolling direction (T-direction) the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) was found to be 197 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), and the total elongation at failure was found to be 7.7%. For annealed, unwelded martensitic stainless steel, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) was found to be 77 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), and the total elongation at failure was found to be 30.3% for a sample oriented in the sheet rolling (L-direction). For a sample oriented transverse to the sheet rolling direction (T-direction) the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) was found to be 77 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), and the total elongation at failure was found to be 29.4% . |
Data Explanation | Martensitic stainless steel material, hardened, shows very high strength (2.25 times the strength of American Iron & Steel institute (AISI) type 304 austenitic stainless steel, or 1.4 times the strength of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy), with excellent ductility and elongation of nearly 9%. Unprocessed martensitic stainless steel as delivered from steel mills - annealed - shows relatively low strength, 40% of the strength of hardened material, with excellent ductility and elongation of approximately 30%. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | The as-delivered, annealed martensitic stainless steel material, exhibiting lower strength and enhanced ductility compared to conventional pre-hardened "high strength steels", provides the end-user with easy-to-form material - reducing manufacturing time and costs, while still allowing for ultra-high strength parts after heat-treatment. |
Test Performed | Characterizing raw material properties, both hardened and as-delivered |
Testing Facility | AK Steel Research |
Address, City, State, Zip | 7005 Curtis Street, Middletown, OH 45043 |
Testing Date | 7/20/2006 |
Actual Test Data | Sample 1 (Hardened L-direction): YS = 148.0 ksi, UTS = 196.5 ksi, elong. = 9.2%; Sample 2 (Hardened T-direction): YS = 149.4 ksi, UTS = 197.2 ksi, elong. = 8.6%; Sample 3 (Annealed L-direction): YS = 42.2 ksi, UTS = 77.1 ksi, elong. = 32.7%; Sample 4 (Annealed T-direction): YS = 44.2 ksi, UTS = 76.8 ksi, elong. = 31.1% |
Test Result | For hardened, unwelded material, the Yield Strength (YS) was found to be 148.0 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) was found to be 196.5 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), and the total elongation at failure was found to be 9.2% for a sample oriented in the sheet rolling (L-direction). For a sample oriented transverse to the sheet rolling direction (T-direction) the Yield Strength (YS) was found to be 149.4 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) was found to be 197.2 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), and the total elongation at failure was found to be 8.6% . For annealed, unwelded material, the yield strength (YS) was found to be 42.2 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) was found to be 77.1 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), and the total elongation at failure was found to be 32.7% for a sample oriented in the sheet rolling (L-direction). For a sample oriented transverse to the sheet rolling direction (T-direction) the Yield Strength (YS) was found to be 44.2 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) was found to be 76.8 thousand pounds per square inch (ksi), and the total elongation at failure was found to be 31.1%. Additional tests were done, such as Charpy Impact testing and tensile tests for various tempering temperatures; lastly a forming-limit diagram was generated. |
Data Explanation | Martensitic stainless steel material, hardened, shows very high strength (2.25 times the strength of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel, or 1.4 times the strength of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy), with excellent ductility and elongation of 9%. Unprocessed martensitic stainless steel material as delivered from steel mills - annealed - shows relatively low strength, 30-40% the strength of hardened material, with excellent ductility and elongation of 30%. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | The as-delivered, annealed martensitic stainless steel material exhibits lower strength and enhanced ductility, providing the end-user with easy-to-form material - reducing manufacturing time and costs, while still allowing for ultra-high strength parts after heat-treatment. |
Test Performed | Accelerated corrosion and durability environmental sled test. |
Testing Facility | Ford Motor Company |
Address, City, State, Zip | Research and Advanced Engineering - 2101 Village Road, Dearborn, MI 48124 |
Testing Date | 8/23/2006 |
Actual Test Data | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel test specimens subjected to Ford Arizona Proving Ground (APG) sled test. Coating failure after 10 cycles. No red rust after 40 cycles. |
Test Result | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel test parts were affixed to a test sled and subjected to Ford Arizona Proving Grounds (APG) accelerated corrosion test designed to simulate a 10-year vehicle lifetime. Parts experienced peeling, separation and loss of protective electrocoating (e-coat) barrier after 10 cycles due to improper e-coat procedure. However, tests continued on for 40 cycles with no red rust and without any loss of structure or function. |
Data Explanation | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel parts withstood accelerated corrosion testing, designed to simulate a 10-year vehicle lifetime, even when the protective overcoat flaked off. KVA processed martensitic stainless parts survived the entire test with no evidence of red rust and without any loss of structure or function. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | KVA processing allows for martensitic stainless steel to be successfully welded to itself and other weldable alloys using conventional weld equipment, providing the end-user with the ability to fabricate stronger and lighter products without the need for an additional incremental investment in specialized equipment. |
Test Performed | Examination of spot and MIG welding stainless in various configurations and with various parameters. |
Testing Facility | Ford Motor Company |
Address, City, State, Zip | Research and Advanced Engineering - 2101 Village Road, Dearborn, MI 48124 |
Testing Date | 8/23/2006 |
Actual Test Data | Martensitic stainless steel samples were proven to be compatible with standardized welding methods using KVA weld processing parameters and weld consumables: GMAW, spot, using mixed (HSLA350, DP600, USIBOR1500) and similar metal joint configurations. Destructive tests verified weld joint integrity; strength was found to be proportional to base alloy strength. |
Test Result | Martensitic stainless steel samples were proven compatible with standardized automotive welding equipment: Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or Metal Inert Gas (MIG) and resistance-spot welding, using mixed and similar metal joint configurations. KVA process-specific weld parameters, such as heat input, travel speed and filler wire composition, allow for weld joints with high strength low alloy (HSLA350) material, high strength dual phase (DP600) material, and ultra-high strength boron-treated (USIBOR1500) material. Destructive tests, including tensile testing and microhardness traverse testing, verified weld joint integrity. All scenarios produced integral weld joints. Weld strength was found to be proportional to the strength of base metal joined. |
Data Explanation | Martensitic stainless steel can be successfully welded to dissimilar metals using conventional weld processing equipment, with easily modified settings and stainless-specific consumables. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel parts, exhibiting enhanced corrosion resistance and durability, provides the end-user with a longer product life - reducing replacement time and costs, or eliminating the need for protective coatings - reducing manufacturing costs. |
Test Performed | Examination of microhardness across circumference of welded tube samples: as-welded, KVA processing, and hardened. |
Testing Facility | Ford Motor Company |
Address, City, State, Zip | Research and Advanced Engineering - 2101 Village Road, Dearborn, MI 48124 |
Testing Date | |
Actual Test Data | Weld microhardness traverse data summary: base metal 190HV; conventionally welded fusion zone 510HV; KVA weld processed fusion zone 310HV; fusion zone + base metal after hardening 450HV. |
Test Result | Martensitic stainless steel seam-welded tube samples welds were examined through microhardness traverse testing. Changes in hardness profiles from the base metal, through the heat-affected-zone and into the fusion zone were shown to be significant for conventional weld processing. Hardness spikes of 510 Vickers Hardness (HV) in the weld compare to 190 Vickers Hardness in the base metal. KVA weld processing results in reduced fusion zone hardness: 310 Vickers Hardness. After a hardening heat treatment, a uniform 450 Vickers Hardness is obtained throughout the base metal, heat-affected-zone and fusion zone of the KVA processed section. |
Data Explanation | KVA weld processing significantly reduces weld-zone hardness by nearly 40%, making the tube hardness and strength more uniform throughout. Additionally, KVA processed and hardened seam-welded tubing exhibits complete uniformity and homogeneity, with no hardness variation - or weakened areas - between base metal, the heat affected zone, and the fusion zone. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | KVA processed seam-welded martensitic stainless steel tubing, exhibiting an approximately 40% reduction in weld zone hardness, provides the end-user with a more formable, consistent tube - increasing design opportunities and/or eliminating intermediate heat treatments needed for formability - reducing manufacturing costs. Additionally, KVA processed and hardened seam-welded tubing has completely uniform properties throughout, and can be used in place of more expensive seamless tubing - reducing costs. |
Test Performed | Examination of material properties compiled in report: corrosion |
Testing Facility | Ford Motor Company |
Address, City, State, Zip | Research and Advanced Engineering - 2101 Village Road, Dearborn, MI 48124 |
Testing Date | 12/6/2007 |
Actual Test Data | Summary of test data: 1000 hour ASTM B117 salt spray testing - no red rust. |
Test Result | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel was subjected to salt spray testing, designed to accelerate environmental corrosion, for 1000 hours; The KVA processed material showed no signs of red rust or other failure. |
Data Explanation | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel parts withstand accelerated corrosion testing, even without any protective overcoat. Stainless parts survived entire test with no evidence of red rust or pitting and without any loss of structure or function. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel parts, exhibiting enhanced corrosion resistance and durability compared to conventional "high strength steels", provides the end-user with a longer product life - reducing replacement time and costs, or eliminating the need for protective coatings - reducing manufacturing costs. |
Test Performed | Examination of material properties compiled in report: fatigue |
Testing Facility | Ford Motor Company |
Address, City, State, Zip | Research and Advanced Engineering - 2101 Village Road, Dearborn, MI 48124 |
Testing Date | 12/6/2007 |
Actual Test Data | Summary of test data: endurance limit 15% greater than 22MnB5. |
Test Result | Cyclic fatigue tensile testing of KVA processed martensitic stainless steel, in comparison to high strength boron-treated steel (22MnB5) grades, shows a 15% greater endurance limit at high cycles. |
Data Explanation | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel shows a 15% greater strength than hardened boron-treated ultra high strength steels in high-cycle repetitive loading. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | The KVA processed martensitic stainless steel is 15% stronger in repetitive cyclic loading compared to other "ultra high strength steels", which provides the end-user with an extra margin of safety - increased toughness and durability, or reduced part size and weight needed to carry the same load - reducing manufacturing time and costs. |
Test Performed | Examination of material properties compiled in report: heat treating |
Testing Facility | Ford Motor Company |
Address, City, State, Zip | Research and Advanced Engineering - 2101 Village Road, Dearborn, MI 48124 |
Testing Date | 12/6/2007 |
Actual Test Data | Summary of test data: heat treating atmosphere has no effect on hardness; negligible scaling with oxidizing atmosphere. Oxidation layer thickness: air/air 2microns; N2/air 0.45 microns; H2/N2/air 0.03 microns. |
Test Result | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel subjected to various heat treatment atmospheres shows no dependency on hardening (austenitizing and quench) gases for final part hardness. Surface oxide layer thickness corresponds to austenitizing gas used: for air the oxide layer was 2.0 microns thick; for nitrogen the oxide layer was 0.45 microns thick; and for dissociated ammonia the oxide layer was 0.03 microns thick. |
Data Explanation | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel can be hardened in all types of furnace atmospheres, or none at all, without affecting final part hardness or strength. No significant flaking or scaling is observed when processed in air, as opposed to boron-treated steels which scale excessively and require a blasting process to remove surface defects. By using different protective atmospheres during heat treating, the final oxide layer thickness, and appearance of the part, can be controlled. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel parts can be hardened in any heat treating atmosphere, providing the end-user with simpler, compatible processing - reducing changeover time and costs and eliminating secondary blasting operations - reducing costs. Alternatively, the oxide layer thickness, and part appearance, can be controlled by selecting the appropriate furnace atmosphere, eliminating the need for protective coatings or paints - reducing manufacturing costs. |
Test Performed | Examination of material properties, strengths, hardness with KVA weld and heat treatment processing on weld test coupons and tubing. |
Testing Facility | KVA, Inc. |
Address, City, State, Zip | 124 South Market Place - Suite 200, Escondido, CA 92029 |
Testing Date | 9/1/2006- ongoing |
Actual Test Data | Summary of test data: (KVA processed) weld transverse bend testing - 2t and 4t 180 degree bends; weld elongation strip-10%, tube-18%. (conventionally processed) weld transverse bend testing - 2t and 4t bend cracking; weld elongation strip-2%, tube-14%. |
Test Result | KVA processed welded martensitic stainless steel subjected to guided bend weld ductility testing showed complete formability, bending into a "U" shape at bend radii of 2 times and 4 times the material thickness. Conventionally welded strips exhibited premature cracking and failure when tested at either bend radius. KVA processed welds exhibited average total elongation at failure of 10% for strip, and 18% for seam-welded tubing. Conventionally welded samples showed average elongations at failure of 2% and 14%, for strip and tube, respectively. |
Data Explanation | KVA weld processing significantly increases weld-zone ductility, nearly 400% for strip and 30% for seam-welded tubing. Additionally, KVA weld processing eliminates cracking when bending welds at conventional small bending radii. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | The KVA processed martensitic stainless steel strip has 400% more weld zone ductility than conventionally welded martensitic stainless steel strip, which provides the end-user with an extra margin of safety, increased toughness and durability, or additional capacity for fabrication and forming processes without an additional heat treatment - reducing manufacturing time and costs. |
Test Performed | Evaluate corrosion resistance through accelerated life testing |
Testing Facility | Detroit Testing Lab, Inc. |
Address, City, State, Zip | 27485 George Merrelli Drive, Warren, MI 48092 |
Testing Date | 39793 |
Actual Test Data | Summary of test data: 500 hours ASTM B117 salt spray testing - passivated samples - no red rust; electropolished samples - no red rust. |
Test Result | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel subjected to salt spray testing, designed to accelerate environmental corrosion, for 500 hours; no signs of red rust or other failure. Samples were prepared with either a chemical passivation or electropolishing pretreatment. |
Data Explanation | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel parts withstand accelerated corrosion testing, even without any protective overcoat. Stainless coupons survived the entire test with no evidence of red rust or pitting and without any loss of structure or function. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | KVA processed martensitic stainless steel parts, exhibiting enhanced corrosion resistance and durability compared to conventional "high strength steels", provides the end-user with a longer product life - reducing replacement time and costs, or eliminating the need for protective coatings - reducing manufacturing costs. |
Test Performed | Evaluate weld integrity and ductility on seam-welded tubing that may be subject to hydroforming operations |
Testing Facility | BKO Technical |
Address, City, State, Zip | 5561 156th Lane, NW Ramsey, MN 55303 |
Testing Date | 39492 |
Actual Test Data | Summary of test data: (KVA processed) burst pressure - 2500psi-; hardened - 5800psi; rupture location in base metal. (conventionally processed) burst pressure - 2200psi; rupture location in weld seam. |
Test Result | Martensitic stainless steel seam-welded tube samples welds were examined through free expansion hydrostatic burst testing. Samples produced using KVA's weld processing technology demonstrated increased overall expansion versus conventional welded samples. KVA's weld processing technology produced samples with burst pressures of 2500 pounds of pressure per square inch (psi) as welded and over 5800 pounds of pressure per square inch when welded and then hardened, with the eventual rupture occurring in the base metal, far from the weld seam and heat affected zone in both cases. Conventional welded samples experienced failure at 2200 pounds of pressure per square inch (psi), with the weld seam rupturing at the weld-heat affected zone interface. |
Data Explanation | KVA weld processing reduces weld-zone brittleness and tendency for splitting during expansion, increasing allowable pressure by nearly 14%. Additionally, KVA processed and hardened seam-welded tubing exhibits complete weld integrity and increased strength, with burst pressures more than 2.6 times that of conventionally welded tubing. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | KVA processed seam-welded martensitic stainless steel tubing, exhibits enhanced weld zone ductility and expandability compared to conventionally welded martensitic stainless steel tubing, providing the end-user with a more formable, consistent tube - increasing design opportunities and/or eliminating intermediate heat treatments needed for formability or hydroforming - reducing manufacturing costs. Additionally, KVA processed and hardened seam-welded tubing has completely uniform properties throughout, and can be used in place of more expensive seamless tubing - reducing costs. |
Test Performed | Evaluate weld microstructure and understand/visualize effects of KVA processing on a micro-scale |
Testing Facility | Stork Materials Testing & Inspection |
Address, City, State, Zip | 15062 Bolsa Chica, Huntington Beach, CA 92649 |
Testing Date | 39497 |
Actual Test Data | Summary of test data: (KVA processed) reduced microstructural segregation and chromium carbide dispersion; hardened - uniform weld/HAZ/base grain size and martensitic microstructure. (conventionally processed) increased dendritic grain size and carbide segregation in weld seam and HAZ. |
Test Result | Martensitic stainless steel seam-welded tube samples welds were prepared by polishing and etching and high magnification photomicrographs were taken. Samples produced with KVA's weld processing technology demonstrated increased microstructural uniformity, with less pronounced chromium carbide segregation and smaller grain sizes in the weld fusion and heat-affected-zones (HAZ) when compared to conventionally welded samples. Additionally, KVA's hardened samples display consistent, homogenous martensitic microstructures with no visible distinction between the weld fusion, heat-affected and base metal zones. |
Data Explanation | KVA weld processing reduces weld-zone variation and discontinuity of material properties on a microstructural level, as compared to conventional weld processing methods. Additionally, KVA weld processed and hardened seam-welded tubing exhibits complete weld integrity, with no microstructural change evident in the complete cross-section of the tube. |
Benefits to KVA Technology End-Users | KVA processed seam-welded martensitic stainless steel tubing, exhibiting refined weld zone microstructure, provides the end-user with a more formable, consistent tube - increasing design opportunities and/or eliminating intermediate heat treatments needed for formability or hydroforming - reducing manufacturing costs. Additionally, KVA processed and hardened seam-welded tubing has complete uniform microstructure throughout, and can be used in place of more expensive seamless tubing - reducing costs. |